Andrea Guidotti Countering Hybrid Threats in the Grey Zone·Artificial Intelligence & CybersecurityNew
Neele Seifert Trump, Xi and the Post-Unipolar World·Business EconomicsNew
Devin Nguyen The United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement (USMCA)·International Economic RelationsNew
Gabriel Schroeder Campos The ‘Emergency Government’: Kast’s First 100 Days·International Relations & DiplomacyNew
Camila Mejia Quintero The Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties·International Law & TreatiesNew
Arianna Vicinanza Plaid Cymru, SNP, and the Cracking Union·International Relations & DiplomacyNewOHOezlem Has Hybrid Security Regimes in Practice·Security Policy & DefenceNew
Juliette Bourahla The Paradox of Tunisia’s Arab Spring·Human Rights & Humanitarian AidNew
Mariami Aliashvili The EU’s Support Against Russian Hybrid Threats·Security Policy & DefenceNew
Marco Tauro Challenges and Opportunities of Political Communication: A Conversation with Meltem Seker·Public AffairsNewAndrea Guidotti Countering Hybrid Threats in the Grey Zone·Artificial Intelligence & CybersecurityNewNeele Seifert Trump, Xi and the Post-Unipolar World·Business EconomicsNewDevin Nguyen The United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement (USMCA)·International Economic RelationsNewGabriel Schroeder Campos The ‘Emergency Government’: Kast’s First 100 Days·International Relations & DiplomacyNewCamila Mejia Quintero The Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties·International Law & TreatiesNewArianna Vicinanza Plaid Cymru, SNP, and the Cracking Union·International Relations & DiplomacyNewOHOezlem Has Hybrid Security Regimes in Practice·Security Policy & DefenceNewJuliette Bourahla The Paradox of Tunisia’s Arab Spring·Human Rights & Humanitarian AidNewMariami Aliashvili The EU’s Support Against Russian Hybrid Threats·Security Policy & DefenceNewMarco Tauro Challenges and Opportunities of Political Communication: A Conversation with Meltem Seker·Public AffairsCountering Hybrid Threats in the Grey ZoneTrump, Xi and the Post-Unipolar WorldThe United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement (USMCA)19 JunSummer School: EU StudiesThe ‘Emergency Government’: Kast’s First 100 DaysSun 26 Jul 2026The Vienna Convention on the Law of TreatiesPlaid Cymru, SNP, and the Cracking Union07 JulEuropean EncountersOHHybrid Security Regimes in PracticeThe Paradox of Tunisia’s Arab SpringSun 26 Jul 2026The EU’s Support Against Russian Hybrid Threats18 JulEurope, Migration, Refugees (FUBiS Term III subject course)Challenges and Opportunities of Political Communication: A Conversation with Meltem SekerCountering Hybrid Threats in the Grey ZoneTrump, Xi and the Post-Unipolar WorldThe United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement (USMCA)19 JunSummer School: EU StudiesThe ‘Emergency Government’: Kast’s First 100 DaysSun 26 Jul 2026The Vienna Convention on the Law of TreatiesPlaid Cymru, SNP, and the Cracking Union07 JulEuropean EncountersOHHybrid Security Regimes in PracticeThe Paradox of Tunisia’s Arab SpringSun 26 Jul 2026The EU’s Support Against Russian Hybrid Threats18 JulEurope, Migration, Refugees (FUBiS Term III subject course)Challenges and Opportunities of Political Communication: A Conversation with Meltem Seker
Bachelor of Science (BS) · Leiden University/ King's College London
Pablo Mathis studied Security Studies at Leiden University in the Netherlands and now pursued a Master at the Kings College London. Pablo’s main area of interest is national security, with a special focus on great-power competition and nuclear and conventional deterrence. When analyzing these issues, Pablo believes in adopting a historical perspective and building on various international relations theories.
Petrodollar describes how Gulf oil is exchanged for US Security. The Petrodollar has helped establish the USD as a global reserve currency. Iranian retaliatory strikes against the Gulf states threaten the petrodollar.
The article explains what military escalation is and how it can help us understand events. In doing so, the contribution presents the dimensions of vertical, horizontal, and political escalation. The concept of escalation cna help evaluate military options and assess their consequences.
What is Hedging? Hedging is a foreign policy strategy of states against uncertainty. Hedging, although a contested concept, can help observers make sense of international relations.
Russia outproduces the EU in arms, leveraging a wartime economy, while the EU struggles with limited production capacity, posing future conflict risks despite higher equipment quality.
America has the luxury of choosing along a spectrum of four broad grand strategy choices: isolationism, offshore balancing, selective engagement, and hegemony.
The text explores Thucydides’ Trap: rising power sparks war. Fear, honor, and interest are key motives for conflict. Creative diplomacy offers a path to escape the trap.
Over the past years, open-source intelligence (OSINT) has gained increasing public attention. This background article analyses the power and methodology of OSINT.
A publication by OSINT for Ukraine has revealed connections between the Russian state-run “Russia House” in Berlin and the German AfD.
Total Defense emphasizes a society-wide effort to strengthen national resilience. It integrates civil, military, and institutional resources to respond to hybrid threats. The concept urges European societies to rethink preparedness, enhance coordination, and foster civic responsibility in a chang…
During the 30 Years War, Catholic France pursued alliances with the Protestant Dutch Republic and Sweden. Richelieu, himself a Catholic cardinal, arranged these alliances to balance against the Habsburg Empire. In doing so, Richelieu championed “raison d’etat”, detaching the state from religious …
After Columbus discovered America in 1492, tensions arose between Spain and Portugal over the possession of new territories. To avoid war, Pope Alexander VI mediated between the powers, leading to the 1494 Treaty of Tordesillas. The Treaty vaguely established a meridian off the coast of the Cape …
After the Napoleonic Wars, European powers convened at the Congress of Vienna to reorder Europe. Lasting from 1814 to 1815, the Congress was renowned for its lavish banquets, balls, and intricate negotiations. The Congress sought to reestablish monarchies to increase the legitimacy between states…
The covenant of the League of Nations was part of the 1919 Treaty of Versailles. Headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland, the organisation was the first to be dedicated to preventing wars and solving disputes peacefully. However, the US Congress refused to ratify the US entry into the League of Nati…
As Prussian King, Frederick the Great waged wars against Habsburg, France, and Russia, establishing Prussia as a major European power. Besides military accomplishments, Frederick the Great is often regarded as a representative of enlightened absolutism. Although concentrating power, Frederick bel…
Lee Kuan Yew is often referred to as the founding father of Singapore. After Singapore’s expulsion from Malaysia in 1965, Lee became Singapore’s first prime minister. Providing social housing and social programs, Lee fostered cohesion between Singapore’s Chinese and Malay ethnicities. Levying a c…
Peasant Revolution: Reinterpreted Marxism by centering the rural peasantry rather than the urban working class as the primary force of revolution. Mass Campaigns: Launched radical initiatives like the Great Leap Forward and Cultural Revolution to forcibly transform China’s social and economic str…
Ayatollah Khomeini’s rise in Iran marked a turning point in Middle Eastern relations. As the leader of the Islamic Revolution in 1979, he established an Islamic republic and challenged Western influence in the region. Khomeini’s anti-Western stance affected global oil markets and inspired similar…
Joseph Stalin, the leader of the Soviet Union from the 1920s until his death in 1953, had a significant impact on the international order during and after World War II. He allied with the United Kingdom and the United states to eventually defeat Nazi Germany in 1945. Stalin’s post-war actions con…
Winston Churchill was a British statesman and served as Prime Minister twice. He played a pivotal role during World War II, inspiring the Allied forces with his leadership and defending liberal democracy against the spread of fascism. Churchill’s close relationship with Roosevelt fostered the Ang…
Game Theory is a framework for analysing strategic interactions between states where outcomes depend on the choices of all actors involved. States aim to maximize their own gains while considering the potential actions of other states. This approach helps understand how states might cooperate, co…
Charles de Gaulle, often known as the General, was a prominent French military leader and statesman. As a president of France, he pursued a policy of “national independence” asserting French sovereignty and opposing both American and Soviet dominance during the Cold War. This led him to withdraw …
Klemens von Metternich was an Austrian foreign minister and chancellor. After the Napoleonic Wars, Metternich oversaw the Congress of Vienna. and created the Concert of Europe. The Concert of Vienna intended to preserve peace in Europe through a stable balance of power and restoring monarchies. T…
Hedging, a relatively new concept, refers to a strategic approach where states simultaneously pursue multiple policies to manage uncertainty and to adapt to changing geopolitical dynamics. This involves both maintaining a flexible stance and hedging against potential risks. This strategy aims to …
Accidents vs. Intent: In professional contexts, Safety refers to protection against unintentional hazards or accidents (e.g., wearing a helmet), while Security refers to protection against intentional threats or malice (e.g., guards against theft). Systemic Overlap: In critical infrastructure, th…
A general in the First and Second World War, McArthur became supreme commander of the Allied Forces in Japan. In the latter function, McArthur oversaw postwar socio-political reforms in Japan and the creation of the International Military Tribunal for the Far East. McArthur later led the United N…
A World War 2 general, Marshall became secretary of state in 1947 under President Harry Truman. Marshall is often brought in connection with the Marshall Plan. Although Marshall supported US economic aid to Europe, Marshall did not author the Marshall Plan. Instead, he lent his prestige and reput…
Robert Schuman, a French statesman, played a crucial role in the formation of the EU. After WWII, he proposed the idea that close economic ties between nations could deter conflict, an idea central to liberalism. This concept is called the Schuman Plan, which led to the formation of the European …
Margaret Thatcher, a former UK Prime Minister, reshaped international relations through assertive diplomacy and conservative ideology. Her resolute stance of distrust of communism reinforced the UK’s relationship with the US. Thatcher also championed free-market principles and deregulation of the…
Liberalist theorists argue that peace is achieved through cooperation, institutions, peaceful interaction among states. It contends that international cooperation can lead to the promotion of common interests. Liberalism emphasises the importance of international institutions in providing forum f…
As national security advisor, Brzezinski helped attain the 1978 Egypt-Israel Peace Treaty. Notably, Brzezinski orchestrated a departure from the Nixon administration’s détent with the Soviet Union. Believing détent had only emboldened the Soviet Union, Brzezinski sought to challenge the Soviet Un…
As Soviet leader (1985-1991), Mikhail Gorbachev redefined global politics. His policies of openness (glasnost) and restructuring (perestroika) led to the end of the Cold War and to the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Gorbachev’s leadership introduced new political and economic freedoms in the So…
Born in 484 BCE, Herodotus wrote the “Histories,” an account of the Greco-Persian wars. Using reason (gnome), Herodotus sought to combine eyewitness accounts (akoe), hearsay (opsis), and tradition (prolegomena) of both belligerents. Thus, Herodotus’ quest to identify the causes behind events depa…
Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD) is a nuclear doctrine first coined by Herman Kahn of the US Hudson Institute. It asserts that a nuclear attack would result in the annihilation of both parties. MAD assumes the attacked party would retain enough nuclear weapons to launch a second strike. During …
The Power Transition Theory suggests that the international system is stable when power is concentrated with one dominant power that maintains the status quo, and that the probability of war increases when power is evenly distributed among rising powers. This theory particularly emphasises the po…
Franklin D. Roosevelt, the 32nd President of the US, played a pivotal role in shaping the post-World War II international order. He sought to prevent future global conflicts by fostering diplomatic cooperation among nations. He worked with the other Allied leaders to lay the groundwork for the UN…
The Hubbert Curve: This theory suggests that oil production follows a bell-shaped curve; “Peak Oil” is the point in time when the maximum rate of extraction is reached, after which production begins to decline. Economic Impact: Historically, this term triggered fears of “resource scarcity” and gl…
The United Nations is an intergovernmental organisation founded in 1945 to promote international cooperation and peace. Its main objectives include maintaining global security, fostering economic developments, advancing human rights, and addressing humanitarian crises. The UN has several principa…
The World Bank is an international financial institution which provides loans, grants, and technical assistance to developing countries for financial projects. Its primary goal is to reduce poverty in the world by providing aid for building infrastructures and addressing debt problems of the Thir…
The International Criminal Police Organisation, known as Interpol, is an international organization that facilitates police cooperation and crime control. It provides investigative support and expertise focusing on three main areas of transnational crime: terrorism, cybercrime, and organized crim…
The United Nations Security Council (UNSC) is one of the principal organs of the UN, responsible for ensuring international peace and security. It consists of 15 member states and 5 permanent members, and the permanent members possess veto power on every proposal. The Security Council has authori…
The World Health Organisation (WHO) is a UN agency responsible for global public health. It is critical in disease prevention and coordinating responses to health emergencies. Consequently, the WHO not only provides aid to countries but also monitors global health and develops health standards. …
Neoliberalism is a strand of liberalism that concentrates on economic aspects. While both liberalism and neoliberalism emphasise cooperation among state and the role of international institutions, neoliberalism specifically prioritises the benefits of economic globalisation and market-oriented po…
The Prussian general and military strategist Carl von Clausewitz described war as a trinity of passion, chance, and reason. Passion resembles intrinsic hatred and is often associated with the population. Reason is likely attributed to the government. Clausewitz affiliated chance with the military.
Besides his famous trinities describing the nature of war, Clausewitz introduced the concept of the “centre of gravity.” Initially referring to the point where the enemy’s forces were concentrated, Clausewitz later revised the concept. In its later iteration, “centre of gravity” refers to the sou…
The Peace of Westphalia, signed in the German cities of Münster and Osnabrück, ended the 30-Year War. Some scholars have argued that the treaty established the principles of legal equality and states having exclusive sovereignty over their territories. However, critics have doubted whether these …
The English School Theory of International Relations aims to reconcile Realism and Idealism, emphasizing power and sovereignty alongside norms and institutions’ impact on global outcomes. It highlights the evolution of an international society based on common values, rules, and shared interests, …
The nuclear triad describes the capability of a military to deliver nuclear warheads via bombers, in missile silos on land and submarines. Nuclear missiles based on land are often classified as Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles (ICBMs). Submarines may carry Submarine-Launched Ballistic Missiles…
The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) is an international organisation that seeks to promote the peaceful use of nuclear energy while preventing its misuse for military purposes. The IAEA monitors nuclear activities, inspects facilities, and helps to ensure the international safeguards an…
1859, Swiss businessman Henry Dunant witnessed the aftermath of the Ballte of Solferino. Shocked by the widespread suffering, Dunant became a founding member of the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) in 1863. The ICRC was the first organisation dedicated to helping wounded soldiers a…
The Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) is an intergovernmental organisation with 38 member states that pursues a stimulation of economic progress and world trade. Its member countries describe themselves as committed to democracy and the market economy. The OECD provides…
The Democratic Peace Theory argues that democracies are reluctant to engage in armed conflict with other democracies. This theory proposes that shared democratic norms lead to higher level of peaceful relations among democratic countries. It is based on the notion that democracies are accountable…
According to the organisational behaviour model, states’ behaviour is not utility-maximizing. Instead, state action resembles the organisational output of government agencies. Organisations operate according to standard operating procedures, which can increase efficiency. However, standardisation…
The offence-defence balance is the ratio between the resources belligerents need to conduct offensive or defensive operations. For example, a ratio of 1:4 would indicate that a defender needs one soldier to defend against four attackers. Realists have often sought to use the offence-defence balan…
Napoleon became First Consul of France in 1796 and Emperor of France in 1804. Napoleon’s subdual of most of Continental Europe saw the rise of nationalism and the spread of the ideals of the French Revolution. Napoleon’s Grand Armée was severely weakened by his failed invasion of Russia in 1812 a…
The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) is a regional intergovernmental organisation of 10 member states, promoting regional peace and stability and accelerating economic growth. It promotes the “ASEAN Way” which refers to an approach to solving issues that respect the region’s cultura…
Entering into force in 1970, the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons aimed to limit the possession of nuclear weapons while promoting the peaceful use of atomic energy. The treaty only permits the US, USSR (Russia), the UK, France, and China to possess nuclear weapons. In exchange …
In 2021, Australia, the United Kingdom, and the US established a trilateral pact called AUKUS. The AUKUS consists of two pillars. In an unprecedented step, the first pillar sees the US and UK share submarine technology with Australia. The aim is for Australia to domestically produce nuclear-power…
Established in 1995, the World Trade Organization (WTO) is dedicated to facilitating global trade. To this end, the WTO oversees more than 60 treaties on removing trade barriers, facilitating market access and promoting economic growth. If a WTO member state is believed to violate trade rules, me…
Amnesty International is an international non-governmental organization focused on human rights. It advocates for the protection of human rights, including civil liberties, political freedoms, and social justice. The organisation operates independently and strives to mobilise public support to pr…
The Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) is an international organization founded by oil-producing nations. Its primary objective is to coordinate and regulate the production and pricing of petroleum to collectively influence the global oil market and maximize profit. OPEC see…
The World Food Programme (WFP) is the food assistance branch of the UN. It addresses hunger and food insecurity globally by providing aid and supporting development projects to improve food access and nutrition in vulnerable populations. The WFP’s efforts encompass food distribution, cash transfe…
The Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) is a regional intergovernmental alliance consisting of China, Russia, and several Central Asian nations. It is the world’s largest regional organization in terms of geographic scope and population. It promotes economic, political, and security cooperati…
According to the Security Dilemma, if one state increases its security capabilities, this simulataneously reduces the security of another. Consequently, security-increasing measures lead to a cycle of increased tensions, escalations, or conflicts. This occurs because it is hard to know about othe…
Under Kennedy and Johnson, McNamara was US Secretary of Defense. During the Cuban Missile Crisis, McNamara was part of the US Executive Committee, which governed US decision-making. Supporting the Domino Theory, McNamara later oversaw the US engagement in the Vietnam War. Despite being labelled t…
Regionalism in international relations refers to the process of states forming alliances, institutions, or cooperative initiatives within a specific geographic area. This approach can serve various purposes, such as promoting trade, enhancing security, and addressing shared challenges. This theor…
Realism is one of the dominant theories in international relations and it emphasises national interest as well as the role of power. It is based on the idea that the world order is anarchic, meaning there is no central authority. In this anarchy, the supreme goal of the state is to survive, so st…
The Powell Doctrine owes its name to the former US Joint Chiefs of Staff chairman, Collin Powell. Drawing upon the 1990-91 Gulf War, Powell created a list of eight questions on whether the US should go to war. These questions included whether all peaceful alternatives had been exhausted and wheth…
In 2015, 196 states adopted the Paris Climate Accords. Signatory states pledge to keep temperatures below 2, preferably 1.5 degrees Celsius, compared to pre-industrial times. To achieve these goals, states communicate increasingly ambitious five-year “Nationally Determined Contributions” to limit…
Turkey, The Netherlands, Belgium, Italy, and Germany participate in NATO’s nuclear sharing. The participating countries have US nuclear weapons stationed on their territory. In case of war, planes from the respective allied air forces will deliver the US bombs to their targets. Critics claim NATO…
Neorealism, also known as structural realism, argues that the structure of the international system impacts state behavior. Neorealism contends that the anarchic nature of the international system, where there is no central authority, drives states to prioritise their own security and survival. U…
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) is a military alliance consisting of European and North American nations and it strives to ensure security and collective defence. 31 member states have committed to mutual defence in response to an armed attack by external parties. NATO’s primary obj…
In The Hague, the Netherlands, the International Criminal Court prosecutes individuals based on the 2002 Rome Statute. The Rome Statute allows for the prosecution of individuals who committed genocide, crimes of aggression, war crimes, and crimes against humanity. In contrast to the International…
Henry Kissinger, prominent diplomat and political thinker, played a key role in shaping US foreign policy. He employed realpolitik strategies, as known as pursuing pragmatic policies, to ease tensions during the Cold War. Kissinger’s diplomacy re-established US-China relations and negotiated the …
The Hegemonic Stability Theory suggests that the international system is more likely to be stable in unipolar system where there is single dominant power, or hegemon. As this hegemon provides public goods such as a stable currency and security guarantees, it reduces uncertainty among states and m…
Hans Morgenthau was a prominent 20th-century political theorist. His work, particularly the book “Politics Among Nations,” laid the foundation for realism in international relations theory. Morgenthau emphasized the importance of power, national interests, and state behavior in global politics. H…
Contrary to popular belief, geopolitics is not a synonym for foreign policy. Geopolitics comes in two strands. First, critical geopolitics scrutinises how rulers portray geographical space to mobilise support and achieve ends. Second, classical geopolitics investigates how geography and technolog…
FIVE EYES is an intelligence alliance comprising the English-speaking countries: the US, the UK, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand. These nations collaborate on signals intelligence gathering and sharing. The alliance aims to enhance security and intelligence capabilities through information exc…
The European Union (EU) is a political and economic union of 27 nations that are primarily located in Europe. Starting off as the European Coal and Steel community, it has evolved into a broader union with shared citizenship beginning with the signing in Maastricht Treaty in 1992. The EU’s key ob…
Environmental Security contends that environmental issues are vital to global stability and national security. This concept emphasises the interconnection between ecological issues and traditional security concerns. This perspective first and foremost highlights potential conflicts over environme…
Deng Xiaoping’s transformative leadership reshaped China’s global presence. As part of his Reform and Opening-up diplomacy, he sought foreign investment and partnerships, opening the nation to international trade and driving China’s rapid economic growth. Deng also proposed the ‘One Country, Two …
Counterforce describes the ability to conduct nuclear strikes against militarily relevant targets such as army bases. Counterforce strikes depend on smaller, tactical nuclear weapons. Countervalue describes nuclear attacks against non-military targets such as cities. In doing so, larger strategic…
Balancing and bandwagoning are two strategies that states employ in response shifts in the balance of power. Balancing refers to the tendency of weaker states to form alliances to counterbalance against a stronger power in order to maintain a stable power equilibrium. On the other hand, bandwagon…
The Balance of Threat Theory asserts that states form alliances based on the threat they perceive from other states. It contends that states evaluate potential threats not only regarding power but also consider the level of aggression, the capabilities, and the intentions of other states. This th…
The Balance of Power Theory suggests that states seek to prevent any single state or coalition from dominating the international system. This behavior is derived from the threat of each states’ survival. If one state gains significant power, it will take advantage of its less powerful neighbors. …
Nobel made a fortune by inventing dynamite. He remained childless. Hence, after his death, he made his fortune available for funding the Nobel Prize.
Constructivism focuses on the role of ideas, norms, and identities in shaping global politics. It contends that international outcomes are influenced by not only material factors but also non-material factors such as socially constructed perceptions and conventions. Constructivism highlights the …
The International Monetary Fund (IMF) is an international financial institution founded at the Bretton Woods Conference along with the World Bank. The IMF aims to foster global monetary cooperation, ensure exchange rate stability, and facilitate international trade. It also offers financial assis…
The African Union (AU) is a continental organisation consisting of 55 African nations. Its goal is to enhance political, economic, and social cooperation across the continent. The AU seeks to prevent and manage conflict through organs like its Peace and Security Council. The AU has also compromis…